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Tao Te Ching 
Lao-tzu (abt.551-479 BCE)

The Dao De Jing (traditional Chinese: 道德經; simplified Chinese: 道德经; pinyin: Dào Dé Jīng), originally known as the eponymous Lao zi or Lao tzu (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ), is a Chinese classic text. Its name comes from the opening words of its two sections: 道 dào "way," Chapter 1, and 德 dé "virtue," Chapter 38, plus 經 jīng "classic." According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the Taoist sage Laozi (or Lao Tzu, "Old Master"), a record-keeper at the Zhou Dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated.[1]

The Tao Te Ching is fundamental to the Taoist school (Dàojiā 道家) of Chinese philosophy and strongly influenced other schools, such as Legalism and Neo-Confucianism. This ancient book is also central in Chinese religion, not only for Taoism (Dàojiāo 道教) but Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words and concepts. Many Chinese artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and even gardeners have used the Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside East Asia, aided by hundreds of translations into Western languages.

The Wade-Giles romanization Tao Te Ching dates back to early English transliterations in the late 19th century, and many people continue using it, especially for words and phrases that have become well-established in English. The pinyin romanization Daodejing originated in the late 20th century, and this romanization is becoming increasingly popular, having been adopted as the official system by the Chinese government. See discussion at Daoism-Taoism romanization issue.

 

The tao that can be told 
is not the eternal Tao. 
The name that can be named 
is not the eternal Name.

p 7

The unnamable is the eternally real. 
Naming is the origin 
of all particular things.

Free from desire, you realize the mystery. 
Caught in desire, you see only the manifestations.

Yet mystery and manifestations 
arise from the same source. 
This source is called darkness.

Darkness within darkness. 
The gateway to all understanding.

When people see some things as beautiful, 
other things become ugly. 
When people see some things as good, 
other things become bad.

Being and non-being create each other. 
Difficult and easy support each other. 
Long and short define each other. 
High and low depend on each other. 
Before and after follow each other.

Therefore the Master 
acts without doing anything 
and teaches without saying anything. 
Things arise and she lets them come; 
things disappear and she lets them go. 
She has but doesn't possess, 
acts but doesn't expect. 
When her work is done, she forgets it. 
That is why it lasts forever.

If you overesteem great men, 
people become powerless. 
If you overvalue possessions, 
people begin to steal.

The Master leads 
by emptying people's minds 
and filling their cores, 
by weakening their ambition 
and toughening their resolve. 
He helps people lose everything 
they know, everything they desire, 
and creates confusion 
in those who think that they know.

Practice not-doing, 
and everything will fall into place.

The Tao is like a well: 
used but never used up. 
It is like the eternal void: 
filled with infinite possibilities.

It is hidden but always present. 
I don't know who gave birth to it. 
It is older than God.

The Tao doesn't take sides; 
it gives birth to both good and evil. 
The Master doesn't take sides; 
she welcomes both saints and sinners.

The Tao is like a bellows: 
it is empty yet infinitely capable. 
The more you use it, the more it produces; 
the more you talk of it, the less you understand.

Hold on to the center.

The Tao is called the Great Mother: 
empty yet inexhaustible, 
it gives birth to infinite worlds.

It is always present within you. 
You can use it any way you want.

The Tao is infinite, eternal. 
Why is it eternal? 
It was never born; 
thus it can never die. 
Why is it infinite? 
It has no desires for itself; 
thus it is present for all beings.

The Master stays behind; 
that is why she is ahead. 
She is detached from all things; 
that is why she is one with the. 
Because she has let go of herself, 
she is perfectly fulfilled.

The supreme good is like water, 
which nourishes all things without trying to. 
It is content with the low places that people disdain. 
Thus it is like the Tao.

In dwelling, live close to the ground. 
In thinking, keep to the simple. 
In conflict, be fair and generous. 
In governing, don't try to control. 
In work, do what you enjoy. 
In family life, be completely present.

When you are content to be simply yourself 
and don't compare or compete, everybody will respect you.

Fill your bowl to the brim 
and it will spill. 
Keep sharpening your knife 
and it will blunt. 
Chase after money and security 
and your heart will never unclench. 
Care about people's approval 
and you will be their prisoner.

Do your work, then step back. 
The only path to serenity.

Can you coax your mind from its wandering 
and keep to the original oneness? 
Can you let your body become 
supple as a newborn child's? 
Can you cleanse your inner vision 
until you see nothing but the light? 
Can you love people and lead them 
without imposing your will? 
Can you deal with the most vital matters 
by letting events take their course? 
Can you step back from your own mind 
and thus understand all things?

Giving birth and nourishing, 
having without possessing, 
acting with no expectations, 
leading and not trying to control: 
this is the supreme virtue.

We join spokes together in a wheel, 
but it is the center hole 
that makes the wagon move.

We shape clay into a pot, 
but it is the emptiness inside 
that holds whatever we want.

We hammer wood for a house, 
but it is the inner space 
that makes it livable.

We work with being, 
but non-being is what we use.

Colors blind the eye. 
Sounds deafen the ear. 
Flavors numb the taste. 
Thoughts weaken the mind. 
Desires wither the heart.

The Master observes the world 
but trusts his inner vision. 
He allows things to come and go. 
His heart is open as the sky.

Success is as dangerous as failure. 
Hope is as hollow as fear.

What does it mean that success is as dangerous as failure?
Whether you go up the ladder or down it, 
your position is shaky. 
When you stand with your two feet on the ground, 
you will always keep your balance.

What does it mean that hope is as hollow as fear? 
Hope and fear are both phantoms 
that arise from thinking of the self. 
When we don't see the self as self, 
what do we have to fear?

See the world as your self. 
Have faith in the way things are. 
Love the world as your self; 
then you can care for all things.

Look, and it can't be seen. 
Listen, and it can't be heard. 
Reach, and it can't be grasped.

Above, it isn't bright. 
Below, it isn't dark. 
Seamless, unnamable, 
it returns to the realm of nothing. 
Form that includes all forms, 
image without an image, 
subtle, beyond all conception.

Approach it and there is no beginning; 
follow it and there is no end. 
You can't know it, but you can be it, 
at ease in your own life. 
Just realize where you come from: 
this is the essence of wisdom.

The ancient Masters were profound and subtle. 
Their wisdom was unfathomable. 
There is no way to describe it; 
all we can describe is their appearance.

They were careful 
as someone crossing an iced-over stream. 
Alert as a warrior in enemy territory. 
Courteous as a guest. 
Fluid as melting ice. 
Shapeable as a block of wood.
Receptive as a valley.
Clear as a glass of water.

Do you have the patience to wait 
till your mud settles and the water is clear?
Can you remain unmoving 
till the right action arises by itself?

The Master doesn't seek fulfillment.
Not seeking, not expecting, 
she is present, and can welcome all things.

Empty your mind of all thoughts.
Let your heart be at peace.
Watch the turmoil of beings, 
but contemplate their return.

Each separate being in the universe 
returns to the common source.
Returning to the source is serenity.

If you don't realize the source, 
you stumble in confusion and sorrow.
When you realize where you come from, 
you naturally become tolerant, 
disinterested, amused, 
kindhearted as a grandmother, 
dignified as a king.
Immersed in the wonder of the Tao, 
you can deal with whatever life brings you, 
and when death comes, you are ready.

When the Master governs, the people 
are hardly aware that he exists.
Next best is a leader who is loved.
Next, one who is feared.
The worst is one who is despised.

If you don't trust the people, 
you make them untrustworthy.

The Master doesn't talk, he acts.
When his work is done, 
the people say, "Amazing: 
we did it, all by ourselves!"

When the great Tao is forgotten, 
goodness and piety appear.
When the body's intelligence declines, 
cleverness and knowledge step forth.
When there is no peace in the family, 
filial piety begins.
When the country falls into chaos, 
patriotism is born.

Throw away holiness and wisdom, 
and people will be a hundred times happier.
Throw away morality and justice, 
and people will do the right thing.
Throw away industry and profit, 
and there won't be any thieves.

If these three aren't enough, 
just stay at the center of the circle 
and let all things take their course.

Stop thinking, and end your problems.
What difference between yes and no?
What difference between success and failure?
Must you value what others value, 
avoid what others avoid?
How ridiculous!

Other people are excited, 
as though they were at a parade.
I alone don't care, 
I alone am expressionless, 
like an infant before it can smile.

Other people have what they need;
I alone possess nothing.
I alone drift about, 
like someone without a home.
I am like an idiot, my mind is so empty.

Other people are bright;
I alone am dark.
Other people are sharp;
I alone am dull.
Other people have a purpose; 
I alone don't know.
I drift like a wave on the ocean, 
I blow as aimless as the wind.

I am different from ordinary people.
I drink from the Great Mother's breasts.

The Master keeps her mind 
always at one with the Tao;
that is what gives her her radiance.

The Tao is ungraspable.
How can her mind be at one with it?
Because she doesn't cling to ideas.

The Tao is dark and unfathomable.
How can it make her radiant?
Because she lets it.

Since before time and space were, 
the Tao is.
It is beyond is and is not.
How do I know this is true?
I look inside myself and see.

 

There are many possible translations of the book's title, owing to the polysemy of the component Chinese words:

  • Dào/Tao 道 literally means "way", "road", "path", or "route," but was extended to mean "path ahead", "way forward", "method", "principle", "doctrine", or simply "the Way". This term, which was variously used by other Chinese philosophers (including Confucius, Mencius, Mozi, and Hanfeizi), has special meaning within the context of Taoism, where it implies the essential, unnamable process of the universe.
  • Dé/Te 德 basically means "virtue" in the sense of "personal character", "inner strength", or "integrity", but was used differently by Confucianists to mean "morality". The semantics of this Chinese word resemble English virtue, which developed from a (now archaic) sense of "inner potency" or "divine power" (as in "healing virtue of a drug") to the modern meaning of "moral excellence" or "goodness". Compare the compound word dàodé (道德 "ethics", "ethical principles", "morals," or "morality").
  • Jīng/Ching 經 originally meant "norm", "rule", "plan", "warp" (vs. "woof") and was semantically extended to mean "scripture", "canon", "great book", or "classic".

Thus, Tao Te Ching can be translated as "The Scripture/Classic/Canon of the Way/Path and the Power/Virtue", etc.

Note that there is in fact no "its" in the title, either explicitly or implicitly. Therefore, commonly accepted translations of the title such as "The Book of the Way and Its Power" are in fact adding an extra element that takes away from the accuracy.

The title Tao Te Ching is a honorific given by posterity, other titles include the amalgam Lǎozǐ Dàodé Jīng (老子道德經), the honorific Daode Zhen Jing (道德真經 "True Classic of the Way and the Power"), and the Wuqian wen (五千文 "Five thousand character [classic]"; see next).

[edit] Internal structure

The received Tao Te Ching is a short text of around 5,000 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections (章). It has two parts, the Tao Ching (道經; chaps. 1–37) and the Te Ching (德經; chaps. 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original "Te Tao Ching" (see Mawangdui texts below). The written style is laconic, with few grammatical particles, frequently ambiguous, occasionally rhymed, and expressing often difficult ideas poetically.

The Chinese characters in the original versions were probably written in zhuànshū (篆書 seal script), while later versions were written in lìshū (隷書 clerical script) and kǎishū (楷書 regular script) styles. Daoist Chinese Characters contains a good summary of these different calligraphies.

[edit] Historical authenticity

The Tao Te Ching is universally ascribed to Laozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholastic debate. His name, which means "Old Master", or "old masters" has only fueled controversy on this issue. (Kaltenmark 1969:10).

Laozi

Laozi

The first reliable reference to Laozi is his "biography," circa 100 BC Shiji (63, tr. Chan 1963:35-37), by Chinese historian Sima Qian, which combines three stories. First, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551-479 BC). His surname was Li (李 "plum"), and his personal name was Er (耳 "ear") or Dan (聃 "long ear"). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West. Second, Laozi was Lao Laizi (老來子 "Old Come Master"), also a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the Grand Historian and astrologer Lao Dan (老聃 "Old Long-ears"), who lived during the reign (384-362 BC) of Duke Xian (獻公) of Qin).

Generations of scholars have debated the historicity of Laozi and the dating of the Tao Te Ching. Linguistic studies of the text's vocabulary and rhyme scheme point to a date of composition after the Shi Jing yet before the Zhuangzi — around the late 4th or early 3rd centuries BC. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old"; that he lived for 996 years old, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteen as Laozi. Although some Western scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historical existence, much of this skepticism is founded on a lack of cultural understanding — namely, that it would be inconceivable within the context of ancient Chinese culture, for Sima Qian the historian to have engaged in confabulation. Therefore, Chinese scholars by and large accept Laozi as a historical figure, while dismissing folkloric claims as superstitious legend.

Taoists venerate Laozi as Daotsu the founder of the school of Dao, the Daode Tianjun in the Three Pure Ones, one of the eight elders transformed from Taiji in the Chinese creation story.

[edit] Principal versions

Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version," which is only extant for the Te Ching, derives from a commentary attributed to Han Dynasty scholar Yan Zun (巖尊, fl. 80 BC-10 AD). The "Heshang Gong Version" is named after the legendary Heshang Gong (河上公 "Riverside Sage") who supposedly lived during the reign (202-157 BC) of Emperor Wen of Han. This commentary (tr. Erkes 1950) has a preface written by Ge Xuan (葛玄, 164-244 AD), grand-uncle of Ge Hong, and scholarship dates this version to around the 3rd century AD. The "Wang Bi Version" has more verifiable origins than either of the above. Wang Bi (王弼, 226 – 249 AD) was a famous Three Kingdoms period philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching (tr. Lin 1977, Rump and Chan 1979) and the I Ching.

Tao Te Ching scholarship has lately advanced from archeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. They included more than 50 partial and complete Tao Te Ching manuscripts. One written by the scribe So/Su Dan (素統) is dated 270 AD and corresponds closely with the Heshang Gong version. Another partial manuscript has the Xiang'er (想爾) commentary, which had previously been lost.

[edit] Mawangdui and Guodian texts

In 1973, archeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dating from 168 BC. They included two nearly complete copies of the Laozi, referred to as Text A (甲) and Text B (乙), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put the Te Ching section before the Tao Ching. Based on calligraphic styles and imperial naming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that A and B can be dated, respectively, to about the first and third decades of the 2nd century BC (Boltz 1993:284).

In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo tablets, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian (郭店) in Jingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC. The Guodian Chu Slips comprise about 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with the Tao Te Ching, including 14 previously unknown verses.

Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recent Tao Te Ching translations (e.g., Lau 1989, Henricks 1989, Mair 1990, Henricks 2000, Allan and Williams 2000, and Roberts 2004) utilize these two versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds.

[edit] Interpretation and themes

Many believe the Tao Te Ching contains universal truths that have been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular. Depending on interpretation, some ambiguous passages have multiple readings, ranging from political advice for rulers to practical wisdom for people. Generally Arthur Waley's translations attempted limited form of poetry in translation and as a rule only translated the Chinese text literally. The following themes and concepts are central to interpreting the text.

[edit] Ineffability or Genesis
The Way that can be told of is not an unvarying way;
The names that can be named are not unvarying names.
It was from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang;
The named is but the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures, each after its kind. (chap. 1, tr. Waley)

These famous first lines of the Tao Te Ching state that the Tao is ineffable i.e. Tao is nameless, goes beyond distinctions, and transcends language. In Laozi's Qingjing Jing (verse 1-8) he clarified the term Tao was nominated as he was trying to describe a state of existence before it happened and before time or space. Way or path happened to be the side meaning of Tao, ineffability would be just poetic. This is the Chinese creation story from the primordial Tao. In the first twenty-four words in Chapter one, the author articulated an abstract cosmogony, in what would be the world outside of the cave before it took shape by Plato in his allegory of the cave.

[edit] The Mysterious Female
The Valley Spirit never dies
It is named the Mysterious Female.
And the doorway of the Mysterious Female
Is the base from which Heaven and Earth sprang.
It is there within us all the while;
Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry. (chap. 6, tr. Waley)

Like the above description of the ineffable Tao as "the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures", the Tao Te Ching advocates "female" (or Yin) values, emphasizing the passive, solid, and quiescent qualities of nature (which is opposed to the active and energetic), and "having without possessing". Waley's translation can also be understood as the Esoteric Feminine in that it can be known intuitively, that must be complemented by the masculine, "male" (or Yang), again amplified in Qingjing Jing (verse 9-13). Yin and Yang should be balanced, "Know masculinity, Maintain femininity, and be a ravine for all under heaven." (chap. 28, tr. Mair)

[edit] Returning (Union with the Primordial)
In Tao the only motion is returning;
The only useful quality, weakness.
For though all creatures under heaven are the products of Being,
Being itself is the product of Not-being. " (chap. 40, tr. Waley)

Another theme is the eternal return, or what Mair (1990:139) calls "the continual return of the myriad creatures to the cosmic principle from which they arose."

There is a contrast between the rigidity of death and the weakness of life: "When he is born, man is soft and weak; in death he becomes stiff and hard. The ten thousand creatures and all plants and trees while they are alive are supple and soft, but when dead they become brittle and dry." (chap. 76, tr. Waley). This is returning to the beginning of things, or to one's own childhood.

The Tao Te Ching focuses upon the beginnings of society, and describes a golden age in the past, comparable with the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Human problems arose from the "invention" of culture and civilization. In this idealized past, “the people should have no use for any form of writing save knotted ropes, should be contented with their food, pleased with their clothing, satisfied with their homes, should take pleasure in their rustic tasks." (chap. 80, tr. Waley)

If the same chapter is understood in the Taoist cosmogony, the last two verses re-state the creation of beings from you (有) as in youji or Taiji which came from wu as in Wuji, a state of union with the primordial. This concept is also outlined in two other texts Xishen Jing and Qingjing Jing attributable to Laozi.

[edit] Emptiness
We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel;
But it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the wheel depends.
We turn clay to make a vessel;
But it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the vessel depends.
We pierce doors and windows to make a house;
And it is on these spaces where there is nothing that the usefulness of the house depends.
Therefore just as we take advantage of what is, we should recognize the usefulness of what is not. (chap. 11, tr. Waley)

Philosophical vacuity is a common theme among Asian wisdom traditions including Taoism (especially Wu wei "effortless action"), Buddhism, and some aspects of Confucianism. One could interpret the Tao Te Ching as a suite of variations on the "Powers of Nothingness". This resonates with the Buddhist Shunyata philosophy of "form is emptiness, emptiness is form."

Looking at a traditional Chinese landscape, one can understand how emptiness (the unpainted) has the power of animating the trees, mountains, and rivers it surrounds. Emptiness can mean having no fixed preconceptions, preferences, intentions, or agenda. Since "The Sage has no heart of his own; He uses the heart of the people as his heart." (chap. 49, tr. Waley). From a ruler's point of view, it is a laissez-faire approach:

So a wise leader may say:
"I practice inaction, and the people look after themselves."
But from the Sage it is so hard at any price to get a single word
That when his task is accomplished, his work done,
Throughout the country every one says: “It happened of its own accord”. (chap. 17, tr. Waley)

[edit] Knowledge and Humility
Knowing others is wisdom;
Knowing the self is enlightenment.
Mastering others requires force;
Mastering the self requires strength;
He who knows he has enough is rich.
Perseverance is a sign of will power.
He who stays where he is endures.
To die but not to perish is to be eternally present. (chap. 33, tr. Feng and English)

The Tao Te Ching praises self knowledge with emphasis on that knowledge coming with humility, to the extent of dis-acknowledging this knowledge. An interpretation on this knowledge being irrational in connection with Chapter 19 of Waley's translation on "Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, And the people will be benefited a hundredfold." seem to be inaccurate stemming from Feisheng qizi which is a reverse phrase meaning the truly exalted (sheng) and intellectual (zi) never claimed they are, which might as well be abolishing the notions of exaltation and intellectuality, meaning humbleness and humility of one's enlightenment is crucial. Knowledge, like desire, should be diminished. "It was when intelligence and knowledge appeared that the Great Artifice began." (chap. 18, tr. Waley), similarly another examplar on lost in translation by a sinologist, the third and fourth stanzas reads Zihui zu You Dawei, which should be read in reverse as the first and second stanzas, that when the world is full deceit and falsehoods (Dawei), wisdom and intellectuality shall arise.

[edit] Other themes

Here are some other themes inferred from the "Tao Te Ching" (with examples of instances):

  • Force begets force.
  • One whose needs are simple can fulfill them easily.
  • Material wealth does not enrich the spirit.
  • Self-absorption and self-importance are vain and self-destructive. (22, 24)
  • Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned.
  • The harder one tries, the more resistance one creates for oneself.
  • The more one acts in harmony with the universe (the Mother of the ten thousand things), the more one will achieve, with less effort.
  • The truly wise make little of their own wisdom for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know.
  • When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values. (18)
  • Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame.
  • The qualities of flexibility and suppleness, especially as exemplified by water, are superior to rigidity and strength. (8, 40, 55, 78)
  • Everything is in its own time and place.
  • Duality of nature that complements each other instead of competing with each other — the two faces of the same coin — one cannot exist without the other.
  • The differences of opposite polarities — e.g., the differences between male and female, light and dark, strong and weak, etc. — help us to understand and appreciate the universe.
  • Humility is the highest virtue.
  • Knowing oneself is a virtue. (33)
  • Envy is our calamity; overindulgence is our plight.
  • The more you go in search of an answer, the less you will understand.
  • Know when it's time to stop. If you don't know then stop when you are done. (9)

[edit] Interpretations in relation to religious traditions

The relation between Taoism and Buddhism and Chan Buddhism is complex and fertile. Similarly, the relationship between Taoism and Confucianism is richly interwoven, historically.

Since Christian missionaries were among the first Westerners to study the Tao Te Ching, it is not surprising that they connected Taoism with Christianity. Assimilation of local religions often helped missionary efforts to convert the populace to Christianity. They drew many parallels between the New Testament and the Tao Te Ching, for instance, "Do good to those who hate you" (Luke 6:27, tr. NASB) and "Requite injuries with good deeds" (chap. 63, tr. Waley). Note that the Chinese Bible translates logos ("the Word") as Tao ("the Way").

Two particular Tao Te Ching chapters are perceived as exemplifying Christian themes. Chapter 42 bears a resemblance to the Trinity doctrine: "The Way gave birth to unity, Unity gave birth to duality, Duality gave birth to trinity, Trinity gave birth to the myriad creatures." (tr. Mair 1990:9).

Zhuangzi once stated in a passage from his famous work Inner Chapters, that a great sage would come who would bring knowledge and peace to all men; though he didn't know if it would be in a thousand years or in a day.[citation needed] Naturally, this was interpreted by missionaries as a prediction or foreshadowing of Christ.

Going even further, in 1823 the French sinologist Jean-Pierre-Abel Rémusat suggested that Yahweh was signified by three words in Chapter 14; yi (夷 "calm; level; barbarian"), xi (希 "rare; indiscernible; hope"), and wei (微 "tiny, small; obscure").

We look for it but do not see it; we name it "subtle." We listen for it but do not hear it; we name it "rare." We grope for it but do not grasp it; we name it "serene." These three cannot be fully fathomed, Therefore, They are bound together to make unity." (chap. 14, tr. Mair 1990:74)

James Legge (1891:57-58[1]) dismissed this hypothetical yi-xi-wei and Yahweh connection as "a mere fancy or dream". According to Holmes Welch:

It is not hard to understand the readiness of early scholars to assert that the doctrine of the Trinity was revealed in the Tao Te Ching and that its fourteenth chapter contains the syllables of "Yahveh." Even today, though these errors have been recognized for more than a century, the general notion that Lao Tzu was Christ's forerunner has lost none of its romantic appeal. (1965:7)

Present day researchers, such as Damascene et al. (1999), continue to explore the similarities between Taoist and Christian teachings. A newer book that explores the relationship is "A Tao te Ching for Christians" by Paul Brennan.

Critics point out that these "similarities" consist of taking select passages out of context of the text as a whole, and out of the history of Chinese textual interpretation and religious practice. Passages that are incompatible with Christian doctrines, such as Chapter 5 "Heaven and Earth are not Humane (ren)"(Wing-tsit Chan trans.) are ignored. This approach was started by Christian missionaries, who were actively working to supplant Chinese religions.

[edit] Translations

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching has been translated into over 250 Western languages, mostly to English, German, and French.[2] According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved."[3]

Most translations are written by people with a foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English. Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation. Critics of these versions, such as Taoism scholar Eugene Eoyang, claim that translators like Mitchell produce readings of the Tao Te Ching that deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought[2]. Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies, and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture[3][4]. Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue[5] and Johnathan Herman[6], argue that while they are poor scholarship they meet a real spiritual need in the West.

[edit] Translational difficulties

The Tao Te Ching is written in classical Chinese, which can be difficult to understand completely even for well-educated native speakers of modern Chinese. Classical Chinese relies heavily on allusion to a corpus of standard literary works to convey semantic meaning, nuance, and subtext. This corpus was memorized by highly-educated people in Laozi's time, and the allusions were reinforced through common use in writing, but few people today have this type of deep acquaintance with ancient Chinese literature. Thus, many levels of subtext are potentially lost on modern translators. Furthermore, many of the words that the Tao Te Ching uses are deliberately vague and ambiguous.

Since there are no punctuation marks in classical Chinese, it can be difficult to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins. Moving a period a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator. Some editors and translators argue that the received text is so corrupted (from originally being written on one-line bamboo tablets linked with silk threads) that it is impossible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another.

[edit] Printed English translations

Tao Te Ching — translation by Gia-Fu Feng and Jane English

Tao Te Ching — translation by Gia-Fu Feng and Jane English

  • John Chalmers, The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity and Morality of "The Old Philosopher," Lao-tze, London, Trubner, 1868.
  • Frederic H. Balfour, Taoist Texts: Ethical, Political, and Speculative, London, Trubner, 1884.
  • James Legge, The Texts of Taoism, 2 vols (Sacred Books of China 39 and 40) Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1891; New York, Dover, 1962.
  • I.W. Heysinger, The Light of China. The Tao Teh King of Lao Tsze; 604-504 B.C., Stationer's Hall, 1903; Kessinger, 2003.
  • Arthur Waley, The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought, London, Allen & Unwin, 1934, New York, Grove, 1958.
  • Witter Bynner, The Way of Life According to Lao Tzu: An American Version, John Day Company, 1944.
  • Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Laotse, Random House, 1948.
  • Eduard Erkes, Ho-Shang-Kung's Commentary on Lao-tse, Artibus Asiae, 1950.
  • J.J.L. Duyvendak, Tao Te King: The Book of the Way and its Virtue, London, John Murray, 1954.
  • John C.H. Wu, Tao Teh Ching, St. John's University Press, 1961; Shambhala, 1989.
  • D.C. Lau, Tao Te Ching, Penguin Books, 1963; rev. ed. (with Mawang Dui texts) Chinese University Press, 1989.
  • Wing-tsit Chan, The Way of Lao Tzu, Bobbs-Merrill, 1963.
  • Jane English and Gia-Fu Feng, Tao Te Ching, New York, Vintage Books, 1972, 1989. (This was Alan Watts' favorite English translation.)
  • Paul Lin, A Translation of Lao-tzu's Tao Te Ching and Wang Pi's Commentary, University of Michigan, 1977.
  • Ariane Rump and Wing-tsit Chan, Commentary on the Lao Tzu by Wang Pi, University of Hawaii, 1979.
  • R.L. Wing, The Tao Of Power, Doubleday, 1986.
  • Stephen Mitchell, Tao Te Ching, New York, Harper Collins, 1988.
  • Ellen M. Chen, The Te Tao Ching: A New Translation with Commentary, New York, Paragon House, 1989.
  • Robert G. Henricks, Lao-tzu: Te-Tao Ching, A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts, Ballantine, 1989. ISBN 0-345-34790-0
  • Victor H. Mair, Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way, by Lao Tzu; an entirely new translation based on the recently discovered Ma-wang-tui manuscripts, New York, Bantam Books, 1990.
  • Stephen Addiss and Stanley Lombardo, Loa-tzu, Tao Te Ching, Indianapolis, Hacket Publishing, 1993.
  • Ko Hsuan (Aleister Crowley), Tao Te Ching: Liber CLVII, edited by Hymenaeus Beta, Samuel Weiser, Inc., 1995. ISBN 0-87728-846-1 [a poetic interpretation of the Legge translation]
  • Red Pine (Bill Porter), Lao-Tzu's Taoteching, With Selected Commentaries of the Past 2000 Years, San Francisco, Mercury House, 1996.
  • Ursula K. Le Guin, Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching, a Book about the Way and the Power of the Way, Boston, Shambhala, 1998.
  • Sarah Allan and Crispin Williams, The Guodian Laozi, Berkeley, University of California, 2000.
  • Robert G. Henricks, Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching: A Translation of the Startling New Documents Found at Guodian, New York, Columbia University Press, 2000. (Contains only the Guodian chapters, cf. Henricks 1989.)
  • David H. Li, Dao De Jing: a New Millennium Translation, Premier Publishing, 2001.
  • Jonathan Star, Tao Te Ching: The Definitive Edition, New York, Penguin Books, 2001.
  • Moss Roberts, Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way, University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0-520-20555-3
  • Ralph Alan Dale, Tao Te Ching: A New Translation & Commentary, Watkins Publishing, 2002
  • David Hall and Roger T. Ames, Dao De Jing: A Philosophical Translation, New York, Ballantine Books, 2003.
  • Han Hiong Tan, The Wisdom of Lao Zi - Dao De Jing, 2003. ISBN 0-9580067-2-5
  • Rudolf G. Wagner, A Chinese Reading of the Daodejing: Wang Bi's Commentary on the Laozi With Critical Text and Translation, State University of New York Press, 2003.
  • John Bright-Fey, Tao Te Ching: An Authentic Taoist Translation, Sweetwater Press, 2004
  • Derek Lin, Tao Te Ching: Annotated & Explained, SkyLight Paths Publishing, 2006. Author available online to answer questions about his translation.
  • Sam Hamill, Tao Te Ching: A New Translation, illustrated by Kazuaki Tanahashi, Shambhala Publications, 2007.

[edit] Online English translations

[edit] See also

[edit] Related concepts

[edit] References

  • Boltz, William G. "Lao tzu Tao te ching." In Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, edited by Michael Loewe. Berkeley: University of California, Institute of East Asian Studies. 1993. pp. 269-92.
  • Damascene, Hieromonk, Lou Shibai, and You-Shan Tang. Christ the Eternal Tao. Platina, CA: Saint Herman Press, 1999.
  • Eliade, Mircea. A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2. Translated by Willard R. Trask. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
  • Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism. Translated by Roger Greaves. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1969.
  • Kohn, Livia and Michael LaFargue, eds. Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching, Albany: State University of New York Press. 1998.
  • Welch, Holmes. Taoism: The Parting of the Way. Boston: Beacon Press. 1965.
  • Frey, James. "A Million Little Pieces."
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